| Chapter 8 |
| Project Quality Management |
· 1. CHAPTER 8PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT Ahmad H. Maharma PMP®
· 2. PM Knowledge Areas & Process GroupsPM Process Initiating Process Planning Process Group Executing Process Monitoring & Controlling ClosingGroups / Group Group Process Group ProcessKnowledge GroupArea ProcessesProject Develop Project Charter Develop Project Management Direct and Manage Project Monitor and Control Project Work Close ProjectManagement Plan Execution Integrated Change ControlIntegrationProject Scope Collect requirements Verify ScopeManagement Define Scope Control Scope Create WBSProject Time Define Activity Schedule ControlManagement Sequence Activity Estimating Resource Estimating Duration Develop ScheduleProject Cost Estimating Cost Control CostManagement Budgeting CostProject Quality Quality Planning Perform Quality Assurance Perform Quality ControlManagementProject HR Human Resources Planning Acquire Project TeamManagement Develop Project Team Manage Project TeamProject Identify Stakeholders Plan Communications Distribute Information Performance ReportingCommunications Manage stakeholdersManagement expectationsProject Risk Plan Risk Management Risk Monitoring and ControlManagement Risk Identification Qualitative / Quantitative Risk Analysis y Risk Response PlanningProject Plan procurement Conduct procurement Administer Contract CloseProcurement procurementManagement
· 3. 8. Project Quality Management Monitoring & Controlling Processes Planning Processes Enter phase/ Initiating Closing Exit phase/ Start project Processes Processes End project Executing ProcessesKnowledge Process Area Initiating Planning Executing Monitoring & Contol Closing Perform Quality - Perform Quality - Cost Quality Planning Assurance Control
· 4. PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENTProject Quality Management includes the processes andactivities of the performing organization that determine qualitypolicies, objectives, and responsibilities so th t th project will li i bj ti d ibiliti that the j t illsatisfy the needs for which it was undertaken.lt implements the quality management system through policyand procedures with continuous process improvement activitiesconducted throughout, as appropriate.
· 5. Project Quality Management Processes • 8.1 Plan Quality ‐ The process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards for the project and product, and d d documenting h ti how th project will d the j t ill demonstrate t t compliance.• 8.2 Perform Quality Assurance ‐ The process of auditing the quality requirements and the results from quality control measurements to ensure appropriate quality standards and i li d d d operational definitions are used.• 8.3 Perform Quality Control ‐ The process of monitoring and recording results of executing the quality activities to assess performance and recommend necessary changes. f h
· 6. Quality Concepts• Quality vs. Grade – Quality: the degree to which a set of inherent Quality: the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfill requirements – Quality level that fails to meet quality requirements is always a PROBLEM – Grade: a category assigned to product or service having the Grade: a category assigned to product or service having the same functional use but different technical characteristics – Low grade may not be a problem g y p
· 7. Quality Management: Important points• Customer satisfaction • Conformance to requirement q • Fitness for use: product/service produced must satisfy real needs• Prevention over inspection • C Cost of preventing mistakes < cost of correcting f i i k f i• Continuous improvement (Kaizen) • Based on PDCA cycle y • Using quality improvement initiatives e.g. TQM, 6 sigma • Using process improvement models e.g. OPM3, CMMI, Malcolm Baldrige• Management responsibility • To provide the resource needed to succeed
· 8. Quality Concepts• Gold Plating: giving the customer extras – This practice is not recommended p• Marginal Analysis: looking for the point where.. benefits/revenue to be received from improving quality benefits/revenue to be received from improving quality EQUALS the incremental cost to achieve that quality• Just in Time (JIT): j t h ( ) just when they are needed or just before they th d d j tb f th are needed. – It forces attention on quality practices.• Total Quality Management (TQM) – Company & their employees focus on finding ways to continuous improve the quality of their business practices & products.
· 9. Grade and QualityQuality and grade are not the same. Quality is "the degree towhich a set of inherent characteristics fulfill requirements‘‘.Grade is a categor assigned to prod cts or ser ices ha ing the category products services havingsame functional use but different technical characteristics.While a quality level that fails to meet quality requirements isalways a problem, low grade may not be.
· 10. Grade and QualityFor example, a software product can be of high quality (noobvious defects,readable manual) and low grade (a limited number of features),or of low quality (many defects poorly organized user defects,documentation) and high grade (numerous features).The project manager and the project management team areresponsible f managing th t d ff i l d t d li ibl for i the tradeoffs involved to deliver th therequired levels of both quality and grade.
· 11. Precision and AccuracyPrecision and accuracy are not equivalent. Precision means thevalues of repeated measurements are clustered and have littlescatter. ttAccuracy means that the measured value is very close to the truevalue.Precise measurements are not necessarily accurate.A very accurate measurement is not necessarily precise.The project management team must determine appropriatelevels of accuracy and precision precision.
· 12. Basic Approach to Quality ManagementThe basic approach to quality management described in thissection is intended to be compatible with that of theInternational 0I t ti l 0rganization f St d di ti (lS0) i ti for Standardization (lS0).This is compatible with proprietary approaches to qualitymanagement such as those recommended by Deming, Juran,Crosby, and others, and non‐proprietary approaches such asTotal Quality Management (TOM) Si SiT l Q li M (TOM), Six Sigma, f il failure mode and d deffect analysis (FMEA), design reviews, voice of the customer,cost of quality (C0Q), and continuous improvement.
· 13. Modern Quality Mgt and Project Quality Mgt.Modern quality management complements project qualitymanagement.Both disciplines recognize the importance of: f• Customer satisfaction Understanding evaluating defining and satisfaction. Understanding, evaluating, defining, managing expectations so that customer requirements are met. This requires a combination of conformance to requirements (to ensure the project produces what it was created to produce) and fitness for use (the product or service must satisfy real ( p y needs).
· 14. Modern Quality Mgt and Project Quality Mgt.• Prevention over inspection. 0ne of the fundamental tenets 0f modern quality management states that quality is planned, designed, designed and built in not inspected in in‐not in. The cost of preventing mistakes is generally much less than the p g g y cost of correcting them when they are found by inspection.
· 15. Modern Quality Mgt and Project Quality Mgt.• Continuous improvement. The plan‐do‐check‐act cycle is the basis for quality improvement as defined by Shewhart and modified b D i difi d by Deming. l addition, quality i ln dditi lit improvement t initiatives undertaken by the performing organizati0n, such as TQM and Six Sigma, should improve the quality of the projects management as well as the quality of the projects product. Process improvement models include Malcolm Baldrige, 0rganizational Project Management Maturity Model (0PM3@) (0PM3@), and Capability Maturity Model Integrated (CMMI@),
· 16. Modern Quality Mgt and Project Quality Mgt.• Management Responsibility. Success requires the participati0n of all members of the project team, but remains the th responsibility of management t provide th resources ibilit f t to id the needed to succeed.
· 17. Cost of Quality• Cost of quality (COQ) refers to the total cost of all efforts related to quality throughout the product life cycle.• Project decisions can impact operational costs of quality as a result of product returns warranty claims returns, claims, and recall campaigns,• Therefore, due to the temporary nature of a project, the sponsoring organization may choose to invest in product quality improvement, especially defect prevention and appraisal to reduce the external cost of appraisal, quality.
· 18. 8.1 Plan QualityPlan Quality is the process of identifying quality requirementsand/or standards for the project and product, and documentinghow theh th project will d j t ill demonstrate compliance. t t liQuality planning should be performed in parallel with the otherproject planning processes. For example, proposed changes inthe product to meet identified quality standards may requirecost or schedule adjustments and a d il d risk analysis of the h d l dj d detailed i k l i f himpact to plans.The quality planning techniques discussed here are those mostfrequently used on projects. There are many others that may beuseful on certain projects or in some application areas. f l l
· 19. 8.1.1 Plan Quality lnputs.1 Scope Baseline: • Scope statement: The scope statement contains the project description, description major project deliverables and acceptance deliverables, criteria. The product scope description will often contain details of technical issues and other concerns that can affect q alit planning The definition of acceptance criteria quality planning. can significantly increase or decrease project costs quality costs. Satisfying all acceptance criteria implies the needs of the th customer h t have bbeen met.t • WBS: The WBS identifies the deliverables, the work packages and the control accounts used to measure project performance. • WBS Dictionary: The WBS dictionary defines technical information for WBS elements.
· 20. 8.1.1 Plan Quality lnputs.2 Stakeholder Register: The stakeholder register identifies stakeholders with a particular interest in or impact on quality in, on, quality..3 Cost Performance Baseline: The cost performance baseline documents the accepted time p p phase used to measure cost performance (Section 7.2.3.1 )..4 Schedule Baseline: The schedule baseline documents the accepted schedule performance measures including start and finish dates (Section 6.5.3.2)..5 Risk Register: ik i The risk register contains information on threats and opportunities that may impact quality pp y p q y requirements (Section 11 .2‐3.1).
· 21. 8.1.1 Plan Quality lnputs.6 Enterprise Environmental Factors: The enterprise environmental factors that influence the Plan Quality process include but are not limited to: Governmental agency regulations include, regulations, Rules, standards, and guidelines specific to the application area, and working/operating conditions of the project/product which may affect p ojec qua y project quality..7 0rganizational Process Assets: The organizational process assets that influence the Plan 0uality process include, but are not limited to: ‐ Organizational quality policies, procedures, and guidelines, ‐ Historical databases, ‐Lessons learned from previous projects, and ‐Quality policy, as endorsed by senior management, which sets the intended direction of a performing organization with regard to quality. The quality policy of the performing organization for their products often can be adopted "as is" to use by the project.
· 22. 8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques.1 Cost‐Benefit Analysis: The primary benefits of meeting quality requirements can include less rework, higher productivity, lower costs, and increased stakeholder satisfaction. A business case for each quality activity compares the cost of the quality step to the expected benefit.
· 23. 8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques.2 Cost of Quality (COQ): Cost of quality includes all costs incurred over the life of the product by investment in preventing nonconformance to requirements, appraising the product 0r service for conformance to requirements, and failing to meet q , g requirements (rework). Failure costs are often categorized into internal (found by the project) and external (found by the customer). Failure costs are also called cost of poor quality. F il t l ll d t f lit Figure 8‐4 provides some examples to consider in each area.
· 24. 8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques.3 Control Charts: Control charts are used to determine whether or not a process is stable or has predictable performance. Upper and lower specification limits are based on requirements of the contract. They reflect the maximum and minimum values allowed. There may be penalties associated with exceeding the specification limits. Upper and lower control limits are set by the project manager and appropriate stakeholders to reflect the points at which corrective action will be taken to prevent exceeding specification limits. For repetitive processes, the control limits are generally +_3 sigma.
· 25. Control charts Rule of seven (non random data points) Out of control Assignable/special cause Normal and expected variationUpper control limit Usually 3 or 6 sigmaLower control limit Normal distribution curve Out of control Specification limit: is Assignable/special cause point determines by customer, not calculated based on control chart
· 26. The Seven Run Rule The Seven Run Rule• You can use quality control charts and the seven run rule to look for patterns in data• The seven run rule states that if seven data points in a row are all below the mean, above the mean, or are all increasing or decreasing, then the process needs to be examined for nonrandom problems
· 27. Figure 8‐3: Sample Quality Control Chart 30 Information Technology Project Management, Fifth Edition, Copyright 2007
· 28. 8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and TechniquesA process is considered out of control when a data point exceeds a controllimit or if seven consecutive points are above or below the mean.Control charts can be used to monitor various types of output variables.Control charts may also be used to monitor cost and schedule variances,volume, and frequency of scope changes, or other management results tohelp determine if the project management processes are in control.
· 29. 8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques.4 Benchmarking: Benchmarking involves comparing actual or planned project p practices to those of comparable projects to identify best practices, p p j y p generate ideas for improvement, and provide a basis for measuring performance. These other projects can be within the performing organization or outside of it and can be within the same or in another application area area..5 Design of Experiments: Design f D i of experiments (D0E) i a statistical method f id tif i i t is t ti ti l th d for identifying which factors may influence specific variables of a product or process under development or in production. DOE should be used during the Plan Quality process to determine the number and type of tests and their impact on cost of quality. DOE can be used to reduce the sensitivity of product performance to sources of variations caused by environmental or manufacturing differences. diff
· 30. 8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques.6 Statistical Sampling: Statistical sampling involves choosing part of a population of interest for inspection (for example, selecting ten engineering drawings at random from a list of seventy‐five). Sample frequency and sizes should be determined during the Plan Quality process so the cost of quality will include the number of tests, expected scrap, etc. There is a substantial body of knowledge on statistical sampling. ln some application areas it may be necessary for the project management team to be familiar with a variety of sampling techniques to assure the sample selected actually represents the population of interest. h l f
· 31. 8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques.7 Flowcharting: A flowchart is a graphical representation of a process showing the relationships among process steps. There are many styles, but all process flowcharts show activities, decision points, and the order of processing. p g During quality planning, flowcharting can help the project team anticipate quality problems that might occur. An awareness of potential problems can result in the development of test procedures or approaches for dealing with them. Figure 8‐7 is an example of a process flowchart for design reviews.
· 32. 8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques.8 Proprietary Quality Management Methodologies: These include Six Sigma, Lean Six Sigma, Quality Function Deployment, CMMI@, etc. Many other methodologies exist ‐ this is not intended to be a recommended or complete list of examples..9 Additional quality Planning Tools: 0ther quality planning tools are often used to better define the quality requirements and plan effective quality management activities. These include, but are not limited to: • Brainstorming (defined in Section 11 .2.2.2). • Affinity diagrams, used to visually identify logical groupings based on y g , y y g g p g natural relationships, • Force field analysis, which are diagrams of the forces for and against change. g
· 33. 8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques• Nominal group techniques, to allow ideas to be brainstormed in small groups and then reviewed by a larger group.• Matrix diagrams, which include two, three, or four groups of information and show relationships between factors, p , causes, and objectives. Data in a matrix is organized in rows and columns with intersecting cells that can b fill d with i f i i ll h be filled i h information that i h describes the demonstrated relationship between the items located in the row and column.• Prioritization matrices, which provide a way of ranking a diverse set of problems and/or issues (usually generated through brainstorming) by their importance importance.
· 34. 8.1.3 Plan Quality: 0utputs.1 Quality Management Plan: The quality management plan describes how the project management team will implement the performing organizations g p p g g quality policy. lt is a component or a subsidiary plan of the project management plan (Section 4.2.3.1). The quality management plan provides input to the overall project h l l d h ll management plan and includes quality control, quality assurance, and continuous process improvement approaches for the project. The quality management plan may be formal or informal highly informal, detailed, or broadly framed. The style and detail is determined by the requirements of the p j project. The quality management plan should be reviewed early in q y g p y the project to ensure that decisions are based on accurate information. The benefits of this review can include reduction of cost and schedule overruns caused b rework. h d l d by k
· 35. 8.1.3 Plan Quality: 0utputs.2 Quality Metrics: A quality metric is an operational definition that describes, in very specific terms a project or product attribute and how terms, the quality control process will measure it. A measurement is an actual value. The tolerance defines the allowable variations on the metrics. For example, a metric related to the quality objective of staying within the approved budget by + ‐ 10% could be to measure the cost of every deliverable and determine the percent variance from the approved budget for that deliverable. Q Quality metrics are used in the quality assurance and quality y q y q y control processes. Some examples of quality metrics include on‐time performance, budget control, defect frequency, failure rate, availability, reliability, and test coverage. , y, y, g
· 36. 8.1.3 Plan Quality: 0utputs.3 Quality Checklists: A checklist is a structured tool, usually component‐specific, used to verify that a set of required steps has been performed. Checklists range from simple to complex based on project requirements and practices. Many organizations have standardized checklists available to ensure consistency in frequently performed tasks. f l f d k ln some application areas, checklists are also available from professional associations or commercial service providers. Quality checklists are used in the quality control process.
· 37. 8.1.3 Plan Quality: 0utputs.4 Process lmprovement Plan The process improvement plan is a subsidiary of the project management plan (Section 4 2 3 1) 4.2.3.1). The process improvement plan details the steps for analyzing processes to identify activities which enhance their value. Areas to consider include: • Process boundaries. Describes the purpose of processes, their start and end, their inputs/outputs, the data required, the owner, and the stakeholders stakeholders. • Process configuration. A graphic depiction of processes, with interfaces identified, used to facilitate analysis. • P Process metrics. Al i Along with control li i ih l limits, allows analysis of ll l i f process efficiency. • Targets for improved performance. Guides the process improvement activities. i t ti iti
· 38. 8.1.3 Plan Quality: 0utputs.5 Project Document Updates: Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to: • Stakeholder register, and • R Responsibility Assignment Matrix (Section 9.1 .2.1). ibilit A i t M t i (S ti 9 1 2 1)
· 39. 8.2 Perform Quality AssurancePerform Quality Assurance is the process of auditing the qualityrequirements and the results from quality control measurementstot ensure appropriate quality standards and operational i t lit t d d d ti ldefinitions are used. See Figures 8‐8 and 8‐9.Perform Quality Assurance is an execution process that uses data Q y pPerform 0uality Assurance also provides an umbrella forcontinuous process improvement, which is an iterative means forimproving the quality of all processes.i i h li f llContinuous process improvement reduces waste and eliminatesactivities that do not add value. This allows processes to operateat increased levels of efficiency and effectiveness.
· 40. 8.2.1 Perform Quality Assurance: lnputs.1 Project Management Plan: The project management plan described in Section 4.2.3.1 contains the following information that is used to assure quality: • Quality management plan The quality management plan plan. describes how quality assurance will be performed within the project. • Process improvement plan. The process improvement plan details the steps for analyzing processes to identify activities which enhance their value..2 Quality Metrics: Described in Section 8.1.3.2,
· 41. 8.2.1 Perform Quality Assurance: lnputs.3 Work Performance lnformation: Performance information from project activities is routinely collected as the project progresses, Performance results which may p j p g , y support the audit process include, but are not limited to: • Technical performance measures, • Project deliverables status, • Schedule progress, and • Costs incurred..4 Quality Control Measurements: Quality control measurements are the results of quality control activities. They are used to analyze and evaluate the quality y y q y standards and processes of the performing organization (Section 8.3.3.1).
· 42. 8.2.2 Perform Quality Assurance: Tools and Techniques.1 Plan Quality and Perform Quality Control Tools and Techniques: Tools and techniques from PIan Quality and Perform Quality Control, are discussed in Section 8.1 .2. Section 8‐3.2 can also be used for quality assurance activities. Section 8‐3 2 can also be used for quality assurance activities
· 43. 8.2.2 Perform Quality Assurance: Tools and Techniques.2 Quality Audits: A quality audit is a structured, independent review to determine whether project activities comply with 0rganizational and project policies, processes, and procedures. The objectives of a quality audit are: • ldentify all the good/best practices being implemented, • ldentify all the gaps/shortcomings, • Sh Share th good practices iintroduced or iimplemented iin similar the d ti t d d l t d i il projects in the 0rganization and/or industry,
· 44. 8.2.2 Perform Quality Assurance: Tools and Techniques• Proactively offer assistance in a positive manner to improve implementation of processes to help the team raise productivity, productivity and• Highlight contributions 0f each audit in the lessons learned repository of the organization,The subsequent effort to correct any deficiencies shouldresult in a reduced cost of quality and an increase in sponsoror customer acceptance of the projects product. p p j pQuality audits may be scheduled or random and may beconducted by internal or external auditors. Quality audits canconfirm the implementation of approved change requestsincluding corrective actions, defect repairs, and preventiveactions.
· 45. 8.2.2 Perform Quality Assurance: Tools and Techniques.3 Process Analysis: Process analysis follows the steps outlined in the process improvement plan to identity needed improvements. This analysis also examines problems experienced, constraints experienced, and non‐value‐added activities identified during p , g process operation. Process analysis includes root cause analysis ‐a specific technique to id if a problem, di h i identify bl discover the underlying h d l i causes that lead to it, and develop preventive actions.
· 46. 8.2.3 Perform Quality Assurance: 0utputs.1 0rganizational Process Assets Updates: Elements of the organizational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to, the quality standards..2 Change Requests 2 Requests: Quality improvement includes taking action to increase the effectiveness and/or efficiency of the policies, processes, and / y p ,p , procedures of the performing organization. Change requests are created and used as input into the Perform l t P f lntegrated Ch t d Change C t l (S ti 4 5) process t Control (Section 4.5) to allow full consideration of the recommended improvements. Change requests can be used to take corrective action or preventive action or to perform defect repair.
· 47. 8.2.3 Perform Quality Assurance: 0utputs.3 Project Management Plan Updates Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to • Quality management plan, • Sched le management plan and Schedule management plan, and • Cost management plan..4 Project Document Updates: Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to: • Quality audits reports, • Training plans, and • Process documentation.
· 48. 8.3 Perform Quality ControlPerform Quality Control is the process of monitoring andrecording results of executing the quality activities to assessperformance and recommend necessary changes. f d d hQuality control is performed throughout the project. Qualitystandards include project processes and product goals. p j p p gProject results include deliverables and project managementresults, such as cost and schedule performance.Quality control is often performed by a quality controldepartment or similarly titled organizational unit.Quality control activities identify causes of poor process orproduct quality and recommend and/or take action to eliminatethem. See Figures 8‐ 10 and 8‐1 1.
· 49. 8.3 Perform Quality ControlThe project management team should have a workingknowledge of statistical quality control, especially sampling andprobability, t h l evaluate quality control outputs. b bilit to help l t lit t l t tAmong other subjects, the team may find it useful to know thedifferences between the following pairs of terms: gp• Prevention (keeping errors out of the process) and inspection (keeping errors out of the hands of the customer.• Attribute sampling (the result either conforms or does not c0nform) and variables sampling (the result is rated on a continuous scale that measures the degree of conformity).• Tolerances (specified range of acceptable results) and control limits (thresholds, which can indicate whether the process is out of control). f l)
· 50. 8.3.1 Perform Quality Control: lnputs.1 Project Management Plan: The project management plan described in Section 4.2.3.1 contains the quality management plan, which is used to control quality. The quality management plan describes how quality control will be performed within the project..2 Quality Metrics: Q y Described in Section 8.1.3.2.3 Quality Checklists: Described in Section 8.1 .3.3
· 51. 8.3.1 Perform Quality Control: lnputs.4 Work Performance Measurements: Work performance measurements are used to produce project activity metrics to evaluate actual progress as compared to planned y p g p p progress. These metrics include, but are not limited to: • Planned vs. actual technical performance, • Planned vs. actual schedule performance, and • Planned vs. actual cost performance.5 Approved Change Requests: As part of the Perform lntegrated Change Control process a change control status update will indicate that some changes are approved p g pp and some are not. Approved change requests can include modifications such as defect repairs, revised work methods and revised schedule. The timely implementation of approved changes needs to be verified verified.
· 52. 8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and TechniquesThe first seven of these tools and techniques are known aslshikawas seven basic tools of quality:.1 Cause and Effect Diagrams Cause and effect diagrams, also called lshikawa diagrams or fishbone diagrams ill strate ho various factors might be diagrams, illustrate how ario s linked to potential problems or effects. Figures 8‐1 2 and 8‐13 are examples of cause and effect diagrams. A possible root cause can be uncovered by continuing to ask "why“ or "how" along one of the Iines. "Why Why" and "How How" diagrams may be used in root Why‐Why How‐How cause analysis. Cause and effect diagrams are also used in risk analysis (Section 11.2.2.5).
· 53. 8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques.2 Control Charts: Control charts are described in Section 8.1.2.3. ln this process, the th appropriate d t i collected and analyzed t i di t th i t data is ll t d d l d to indicate the quality status of project processes and products. Control charts illustrate how a process behaves over time and p when a process is subject to special cause variation, resulting in an out‐of‐control condition. They Th graphically answer the question: "l this process variance hi ll h i "ls hi i within acceptable limits?" The pattern of data points on a control chart may reveal random fluctuating values, sudden process jumps, or a gradual trend in increased variation.
· 54. Control charts Rule of seven (non random data points) Out of control Assignable/special cause Normal and expected variationUpper control limit Usually 3 or 6 sigmaLower control limit Normal distribution curve Out of control Specification limit: is Assignable/special cause point determines by customer, not calculated based on control chart
· 55. The Seven Run Rule The Seven Run Rule• You can use quality control charts and the seven run rule to look for patterns in data• The seven run rule states that if seven data points in a row are all below the mean, above the mean, or are all increasing or decreasing, then the process needs to be examined for nonrandom problems
· 56. Figure 8‐3: Sample Quality Control Chart 68 Information Technology Project Management, Fifth Edition, Copyright 2007
· 57. 8.3.1 Perform Quality Control: lnputs.6 Deliverables: Described in Section 4.3.3.1.7 0rganizational Process Assets: The organizational process assets that can influence the Perform Quality Control process include, but are not limited to: • Quality standards and policies. • Standard work guidelines, and • lssue and defect reporting procedures and communication policies.
· 58. 8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques By monitoring the output of a process over time, a control chart can help assess whether the application of process changes resulted in the desired th d i d iimprovements. t When a process is within acceptable limits it is in control and does not need to be adjusted. Conversely, when a process is outside acceptable limits, the process should be adjusted. Seven consecutive points outside the upper or lower control limits indicate a process that is out of control. The upper control limit and lower control limit are usually set at +-3 sigma where sigma is one 3 standard deviation.
· 59. 8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques.3 Flowcharting: Described in Section 8.1 .2.7, flowcharting is used during Perform Quality Control to determine a failing process step(s) and identify potential process improvement opportunities. Flowcharting is also used in risk analysis (Section 11.2.2.5)..4 Hi 4 Histogram: A histogram is a vertical bar chart showing how often a particular variable state occurred. Each column represents an attribute 0r characteristic of a problem/situation. The height of each column represents the relative frequency of the characteristic. This tool helps illustrates the most common cause of problems in a process by the number and relative heights of the bars. Figure 8‐14 is an example of an unordered histogram showing causes of late time entry by a project team team.
· 60. 8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques.5 Pareto Chart: A Pareto chart, also refined to as a Pareto diagram, is a specific type of histogram ordered by frequency of histogram, occurrence. lt shows how many defects were generated by type or category of identified cause (Figure B‐1 5). Rank ordering is used to focus corrective action. The project team should address the causes creating the greatest number of defects first first. Pareto diagrams are conceptually related to Paretos Law, which holds that a relatively small number of causes will typically produce a majority of the problems or defects. This is commonly referred to as the 80/20 principle, where B0% of the problems are due to 2070 of the causes. Pareto diagrams p g can be used to summarize various types of data for 80/20 analyses,
· 61. 8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques.6 Run Chart: Similar to a control chart without displayed limits, a run chart shows the history and pattern of variation variation. A run chart is a ljne graph that shows data points pl0tted in the order in which they occur. Run charts show trends in a process over time, variation over time, or declines or improvements in a process over time. Trend analysis is performed using run charts and involves mathematical techniques to forecast future outcomes based on historical results. Trend analysis is often used to monitor: • Technical performance. How many errors or defects have been identified, and how many remain uncorrected? • Cost and schedule performance How many activities per performance. period were completed with significant variances?
· 62. 8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques.7 Scatter Diagram: A scatter diagram (Figure 8‐16) shows the relationship between two variables. This tool allows the quality team to study and identify the possible relationship between changes observed in two variables. Dependent variables versus independent variables are plotted. The closer the points are to a diagonal line, the more closely they are related. l l h l d Figure 8‐16 shows the correlation between the timecard submission date and the number of days traveling per month..8 Statistical Sampling: Described in Section 8.1.2.6. Samples are selected and tested as defined in the quality plan.
· 63. 8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques.9 lnspection: An inspection is the examination of a work product to determine whether it conforms to documented standards. The results of an inspection generally include measurements and may be conducted at any level. For example, the results y y p , of a single activity can be inspected, or the final product of the project can be inspected. lnspections may be called reviews, reviews peer reviews audits or walkthroughs reviews, audits, walkthroughs. ln some application areas, these terms have narrow and specific meanings. Inspections are also used to validate defect repairs..10 Approved Change Requests Review: All approved change requests should b reviewed to verify ll d h h ld be d f that they were implemented as approved
· 64. 8.3.3 Perform Quality Control: Outputs.1 Quality Control Measurements: Quality control measurements are the documented results of quality control activities in the format specified during quality planning..2 Validated Changes: 2 Any changed or repaired items are inspected and will be either accepted or rejected before notification of the decision is provided. Rejected items may require rework..3 Validated Deliverables: A goal of quality control i t d t l f lit t l is to determine th correctness of i the t f deliverables‐ The results of the execution quality control processes are validated deliverables. Validated deliverables are an input to Verify Scope for formalized acceptance.
· 65. 8.3.3 Perform Quality Control: Outputs.4 Organizational Process Assets Updates: Elements of the 0rganizational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to: • Completed checklists. When checklists are used, the completed checklists become part of the projects records project s • Lessons learned documentation. The causes of variances, the reasoning behind the corrective action chosen, and other types of lessons learned from quality control are documented so they become part of the historical database for both the project and the performing organization. Lessons learned are documented throughout the project life cycle, but at a minimum, during project closure. closure
· 66. 8.3.3 Perform Quality Control: Outputs.5 Change Requests: lf the recommended corrective or preventive actions or a defect d f t repair requires a change t th project management i i h to the j t t plan, a change request (Section 4.4.3.1)should be initiated in accordance with the defined Perform lntegrated Change Control (4.5) process..6 Project Management Plan Updates: Elements 0f the project management plan that may b El h j l h be updated include, but are not limited to: • Quality management plan, and • Process improvement plan..7 Project Document Updates: Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to, quality standards.
· 67. Important Terms• Mutual Exclusive: if two events cannot both occur in a single trial• Probability: something will occur• Normal Distribution: common probability density distribution chart • S i i li d Statistical independence: the probability of one event d occurring does not affect the probability of another event occurring• Standard deviation (or Sigma): h f Standard deviation (or Sigma): how far you are from f the mean• 3 or 6 sigma 3 or 6 sigma – Represent the level of quality has decided to try to achieve – 6σ is higher quality standard than 3σ – Used to calculate the upper and lower control limits in a control chart Used to calculate the upper and lower control limits in a control chart
· 68. Important Terms Percentage of occurrences between two controlNumber of σ limits 1 68.26% 2 95.64% 3 99.73% 6 99.99985%
· 69. Who s Responsible for the Quality Who’s Responsible for the Quality of Projects?• Project managers are ultimately responsible for quality management on their projects• Several organizations and references can help project managers and their teams understand quality a age s a d t e tea s u de sta d qua ty – International Organization for Standardization (www.iso.org) – IEEE (www.ieee.org)
· 70. Six Sigma Six Sigma• Six Sigma is “a comprehensive and flexible Six Sigma is a comprehensive and flexible system for achieving, sustaining, and maximizing business success. Six Sigma is maximizing business success Six Sigma is uniquely driven by close understanding of customer needs, disciplined use of facts, data, customer needs disciplined use of facts data and statistical analysis, and diligent attention to managing, improving, and reinventing business managing improving and reinventing business processes.”**Pande, Peter S., Robert P. Neuman, and Roland R. Cavanagh, The gSix Sigma Way, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000, p. xi.
· 71. Basic Information on Six Sigma Basic Information on Six Sigma• The target for perfection is the achievement of g p no more than 3.4 defects per million pp opportunities• The principles can apply to a wide variety of p p pp y y processes• Six Sigma projects normally follow a five‐phase improvement process called DMAIC p p
· 72. DMAIC• DMAIC is a systematic, closed‐loop process for continued improvement that is scientific and fact based• DMAIC stands for: – Define: Define the problem/opportunity, process, and customer requirements – Measure: Define measures, then collect, compile, and display data – Analyze: Scrutinize process details to find improvement opportunities – Improve: Generate solutions and ideas for improving the problem Improve: Generate solutions and ideas for improving the problem – Control: Track and verify the stability of the improvements and the predictability of the solution
· 73. Figure 8‐9: Normal Distribution and g Standard Deviation 89
· 74. Table 8‐3: Sigma Conversion TableTable 8 3: Sigma Conversion Table 90
· 75. ISO Standards ISO Standards• ISO 9000 is a quality system standard that: – Is a three‐part, continuous cycle of planning, controlling, and documenting quality in an organization – Provides minimum requirements needed for an organization to meet its quality certification standards – Helps organizations around the world reduce costs and improve customer satisfaction• See www.iso.org for more information